Frederick II

Life and political setting

Frederick was a son of Emperor Henry VI and Constance of Sicily and ruled a composite monarchy extending across Germany, Italy and Sicily. Repeated delay in fulfilling his crusading vow deepened conflict with the papacy and led to his excommunication in 1227. His court also maintained sustained contacts with the Arabic-speaking Mediterranean.

Career during the Crusading era

Frederick sailed east while excommunicated in 1228. By the Treaty of Jaffa with al-Kamil, Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Nazareth passed to Latin control for ten years while the Haram al-Sharif remained under Muslim administration. Frederick crowned himself in Jerusalem and soon returned to Europe, leaving a settlement criticised in both Latin and Muslim circles.

Documented activity: a chronological record

On March 1223, Frederick II appears in the atlas record “Meeting of Ferentino and the plan for the Sixth Crusade” at Ferentino. The event is documented through Norman P. Tanner, Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils, Fordham Medieval Sourcebook, Evolution of Crusader Privileges 1095–1270, Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Crusades’. On 29 September 1227, Frederick II appears in the atlas record “Excommunication of Frederick II” at Italy. The event is documented through Cambridge History of War, ‘Crusaders and settlers in the East, 1096–1291’, TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, ‘Haçlılar’, Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Crusades’.

On 1228–1229, Frederick II appears in the atlas record “Sixth Crusade” at Cyprus, Acre and Jerusalem. The event is documented through Cambridge History of War, ‘Crusaders and settlers in the East, 1096–1291’, TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, ‘Haçlılar’, Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Crusades’. On 18 February 1229, Frederick II appears in the atlas record “Treaty of Jaffa” at Jaffa – Jerusalem. The event is documented through İbn Vâsıl, Philip de Novara, TDV İA, ‘Haçlılar’.

On 1231–1243, Frederick II appears in the atlas record “War of the Lombards” at Cyprus and Acre. The event is documented through Cambridge History of War, ‘Crusaders and settlers in the East, 1096–1291’, TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, ‘Haçlılar’, Encyclopaedia Britannica, ‘Crusades’.

Allies, opponents and geographical range

Frederick II appears in the same records as Pope Honorius III, Jean de Brienne, Hermann von Salza, Pope Gregorius IX, al-Kamil, Jean d'Ibelin. Co-occurrence does not always indicate alliance: the connection may involve command, dynastic rivalry, captivity, negotiation or direct conflict.

The principal geographical range represented in the atlas is Ferentino; Italy; Cyprus, Acre and Jerusalem; Jaffa – Jerusalem; Cyprus and Acre. These places record not only presence but also the supply lines, diplomatic contacts and limits of authority relevant to the biography.

Results of recorded decisions

The “Meeting of Ferentino and the plan for the Sixth Crusade” dossier records the consequences of this episode and identifies the source problems that limit a definitive reconstruction. Use this record as a starting point for comparing narrative sources, military practice, captivity, negotiation and the legal treatment of war.

The “Excommunication of Frederick II” dossier records the consequences of this episode and identifies the source problems that limit a definitive reconstruction. Use this record as a starting point for comparing narrative sources, military practice, captivity, negotiation and the legal treatment of war.

The “Sixth Crusade” dossier records the consequences of this episode and identifies the source problems that limit a definitive reconstruction. Use this record as a starting point for comparing narrative sources, military practice, captivity, negotiation and the legal treatment of war.

The “Treaty of Jaffa” dossier records the consequences of this episode and identifies the source problems that limit a definitive reconstruction. Use this record as a starting point for comparing narrative sources, military practice, captivity, negotiation and the legal treatment of war.

Sources and historiography

Papal letters, conciliar canons and preaching texts record normative aims, while chronicles describe their social reception. Later versions of speeches are not verbatim minutes and should be compared through their shared provisions, date and circulation.

Names and titles vary between languages; variant spellings and titles should be searched together in catalogues and texts. Approximate dates remain marked as such, and later literary or visual fame is separated from contemporary testimony.